Aztec Rulers: Huitzilihuitl, Second Ruler of Tenochtitlan

Formal Name: Huitzilihuitzin
Life: Unknown-1416
Reign: 1396-1416
Name: hummingbird feather
Place of Birth: likely Tenochtitlan
Died: Likely in Tenochtitlan of natural causes.

The second Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan, and the first that was born in the city, was Huitzilihuitl or formally known as Huitzilihuitzin. He was the son of the first tlatoani, Acampichtli, and a Mexica mother named Tezcatlan Miyahuatzin. His name translates to hummingbird feather, and his name glyph is shown as a green hummingbird head with feathers on the sides. The hummingbird was an important spiritual animal to the Mexica and their feathers were valued more than precious metals.

Huitzilihuitl was born into a growing Mexica community still subject to the Tepanec people of Azcapotzalco and their king Tezozomoc. Before he died, Acampachtli established the calpultin, a council of the four districts, that would not only consider nobility, but ability of potential rulers. Huitzilihuitl was the first selected by this council for his kindness and peaceable manner, according to Duran. The Cronica Mexicayotl describes him as a “very beloved son.”

*Illustration of Huitzilihuitl, Codex Tovar 1587 or 1588.*

A quick historic note, there was an earlier Mexica ruler named Huehue Huitzilihuitl, who ruled before the Mexica had settled in Tenochtitlan and were still living in Chapultepec. These are two separate men, who ruled at different times and in different capacities. Huehue Huitzilihuitl was captured and executed by the rulers of Culhuacan. It was almost a hundred years later that Tlatoani Huitzilihuitl reigned in Tenochtitlan.

Huitzilihuitzin took the throne at about age 16, after the death of his father circa 1403. Militarily, he continued to ally the Mexica with Tezozomoc in Azcapotzalco in their feud with Texcoco. During his reign he took several wives from other altepetls with an eye toward bolstering the Mexica nobility, including noblewomen from their Tepenec rulers in the cities of Tlacopan and Azcapotzalco. His political positioning was so important that a group of Mexica nobles went to Tezozomoc and asked for a daughter to marry Huitzilihuitl. Tezozomoc agreed, providing his daughter Ayauhuacihuatl to marry the Mexica king.

The new queen immediately went to work advocating for her new people to her father Tezozomoc. And Tenochtitlan profited greatly from her efforts, receiving gifts and reduced tribute levels. The queen also bore a son. When word was sent to Tezozomoc in Azcapotzalco, he was overjoyed and had his priests pray on a name. They returned with the name Chimalpopoca. The name was received in Tenochtitlan and given to the new prince. The baby would grow to become a favorite of his powerful grandfather.

Huitzilihuitl pursued his father’s politics, building ties to Azcapotzalco, slowly strengthening the city and army but like his father he did not break free from Tepanec control, but through marriage he loosened its grip. His reign saw the spread of cotton weaving, elevating Mexica clothing from the coarser maguey (agave) fabrics to the much softer cotton fabrics. Additionally he built schools, temples and renovated the Templo Mayor. He also was known to have issued laws to codify Mexica society. His legacy would continue through his sons, including two future tlatoque, Chimalpopoca and Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, as well as the powerful warrior, advisor and shaper of Mexica politics and culture, Tlacaelel.

The Florentine Codex summarized his reign like this: Vitsivitl, was the second lord of Tenochtitlan: the one who had dominion. Twenty and one years: and he began the wars, and fought with those of Culhuacan.

When the Queen Ayauhuacihuatl died it left the Mexica people heartbroken as she had taken them into her heart and was their protectress. A year later Huitzilihuitl also died around 1417, much beloved for his growth of the city. His son Chimalpopoca, the favored grandson of Tezozomoc, would succeed him.

Huitzilihuitzin’s Accomplishments
Supported Azcapotzalco in their war with Texcoco.
Cotton clothing adopted during his reign.
Codified early laws.

Acamapichtli <<- Huitzilihuitl ->> Chimalpopca

Aztec Rulers, The First: Acamapichtli

Formal Name: Acamapichtzin
Life: Unknown-1395/96
Reign: 1376-1395/96
Name: hummingbird feather
Place of Birth: Possibly Texcoco or Culhuacan.
Died: Likely in Tenochtitlan of illness.

Acamapichtli was not born in Tenochtitlan, and was likely a native of Texcoco or Culhuacan. His name means “fistful of reeds,” and his name glyph used in the many historic codices is essentially that, a fist holding a bundle of reeds.

The council of Mexica elders decided to select Acamapichtli because of his dual Mexica-Colhuacan lineage and so cemented the political place of the newly established island-city of Tenochtitlan. Acamapichtli was crowned and became the first Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan around 1382. His mother being from Culhuacan, the dominant city-state at the time, was a critical consideration in his election. The Mexica were then a minor newcomer in a place with thousands of years of history, they needed status.

Illustration of Acamapichtli, Codex Tovar 1587 or 1588.

The Mexica, and their sister community, Tlatelolco, quickly fell into subjugation by Tezozomoc and the Tepanec people. When Acamapichtli had become ruler he knew he was leading a subjugated people. The Mexica military served Tezozomoc, and helped to enforce his empire. Despite remaining a tributary to the Tepanecs, Acampichtli had set the new Mexica city up for success by expanding the island.

During his reign the city of Tenochtitlan expanded into the lake to the east, and districts were laid out to help plan the growing city. Despite the tribute due to Azcapotzalco the Mexica continued to thrive and grow. In one story from Duran, he tells how Tezozomoc demanded an extraordinary amount of tribute, including fully grown live trees, to be delivered. When the Mexica paid the tribute in full, on time, Tezozomoc was amazed – this story, whether true or some colonial myth – serves to illustrate the productivity of the Mexica people.

Hear about the first rulers of Tenochtitlan:

According to Duran, Acamapichtli’s queen, Ilancueitl, could not conceive a child and each of the lords, including the Aztlan-era founder Tenoch, gave him a daughter. Duran tells of a slave girl so beautiful that despite his queen and many concubines, this slave girl had stolen Acamapichtli’s heart. From her came a baby boy named Itzcoatl, who would become a consequential Tlatoani and one of Acamapichtli’s three descendants to rule. It would be Itzcoatl who would finally free the Mexica from their Tepanec rulers.

The Florentine Codex summarizes Acamapichtli’s reign like this: Acamapichtli was the first lord of Mexico of Tenochtitlan: who had dominion of Mexico, “twenty-one years, all was quiet in the land: and there were no wars in his time.” This is obviously a very over-simplified statement as the Mexica were essentially mercenaries for Tezozomoc. Additionally, the Anales de Tlatelolco indicate he led campaigns against communities on the southern Lake Xochimilco.

During his reign, Acmapichtli laid out the four main districts of Tenochtitlan, including Cuepopan and Moyotlan. Through his physical person and lineage he established the Mexica-Tenochtitlan monarchy, from which the subsequent eight tlatoque would issue. Before his death he also laid out the process on how the next tlatoani should be selected. A council of leaders from the four districts would elect the next ruler, rather than it flow from father to first-born son the council would consider the abilities and persona of the future king.

He seems to have died peacefully, perhaps from illness, around 1400, the date varies by source. According to Duran, Acamapichtli expressed regret that he could not free his people from Tepanec control. From one of his noble wives came a son named Huitzilihuitl, who the new council would select to succeed him. Acamapichtli was buried in a modest grave, it is said, without treasure or slaves as other rulers typically were, due to the humble status of the early Mexica people.

Acamapichtli’s Accomplishments:
Built out the chinampa farming system.
Intermarried with numerous women from neighboring cultures to build family ties.
Created the four main neighborhoods of Tenochtitlan.
Great politician who established Tenochtitlan, politically, in the Valley.
Established a new royal line for Tenochtitlan with every subsequent ruler being a direct descendent until the Contact Period.
Conquered Mizquic, Xochimilco, Cauahnahuac, Cuitlahuac.

Acamapichtli ->> Huitzilihuitzin

The Rulers of Tlacopan (Tacuba)

What is today known as the Aztec Empire could be variously described as a cultural group of Nahuatl-speaking people, or as the political entity that ruled the majority of Nahua people, called the Triple Alliance. The Triple Alliance, in 1519, was made up of three “altepetls,” or something like city-states.These were the island city of Tenochtitlan, led by the famous Moctezuma; Tlacopan and Texcoco. Together these three altepetls shared the burden and bounty of their efforts.

While researching for the podcast, I came across a lack of information on the rulers of Tlacopan. So I looked into it. What I’ve found so far is murky. I’m sure if I had the time and access to go through the many codices I could find more, but in my sources, here’s what I came up with (Mostly from Alva Ixtlilxochitl and Duran):

Aculnahuacatl – The First Ruler of Tlacopan (1400-1430)

Installed as the ruler by his father Tezozomoc of Azcapotzalco, he is considered the first Tlatoani of Tlacopan, ruler of the Tepanec people. I only found one citation in Diego Duran, which describes his efforts in driving the Mexica tribe out of Tepanec lands to the West of Lake Texcoco. He is apparently the founder of the Tepanec nation centered in Tlacopan. Apparently the historian Chimalpahin lists his lineage and some other details.

Totoquihuatzli (Totoquihuatzin) – (1430-1469?)

Duran talks about him a lot and describes his presence at a planning meeting for the final version of the Templo Mayor, for which he obligated his people to build the backside. The seventh phase of the Templo Mayor was built in 1454. He was also known as a poet.

Chimalpopoca of Tlacopan – (1469-1489)

Not to be confused with the Mexica Tlatoani of the same name, he ruled from 1469 to 1489. I found lots of unsourced references to him, I did not find any actual references from sources.

Totoquihuaztin II (1489-1520)

*Totquihuatzin II, tlatoani of Tlacopan at the time when the Spanish arrived in Mexico.*

Most of the sources just name a Totoquihuatzli, so it’s possible there are multiple Totos. This would have been the ruler of Tlacopan when the Spanish arrived. There are a lot of conflicting dates and ambiguous use of names in the Tlacopan lineage. Duran lists a Totoquihuatzin as early as the renovation of the Templo Mayor, and as late as Moctezuma II’s coronation in 1502. One source (Duran) says he died shortly after Moctezuma II’s coronation.

Tetlepanquetzatzin (1520-1525)

He was the son of Totoquihuatzli II, and was baptized as Don Pedro Tetlepanquetzal. There seems to be the most certainty around Tetlepanquetzal. That’s because of his murder alongside the two other rulers of the Triple Alliance at the hands of Hernan Cortes. In 1521 he was captured while fleeing Tenochtitlan along with Tlatoani Chauahtemoc. They were tortured about the missing gold lost during the wars in Tenochtitlan. Tetlepanquetzal ruled Tlacopan from captivity and eventually was taken on an expedition with Cortes to Honduras. Cortes became paranoid of the rulers he had in tow and decided to have them killed. All three acting rulers of the Triple Alliance were hanged in 1525.

*The Torture of Cuauhtémoc, a nineteenth-century painting by Leandro Izaguirre. Presumably it is Tetlepanquetzal on the right.*

Don Antonio Cortes Totoquihuatzli (Colonial ruler)

He was the brother of Tetlepanquetzal and son of Totoquihuatzli II. He is best known for arguing for indigenous rights to the royal court of Charles.

Who was La Malinche, Malintzin, Marina?

One of the most intriguing women in history is an indigenous woman who would become known as La Malinche. Her origins are clouded in a fog of varying details, but generally point to some ideas of who this woman was. Some folks report her birthplace as Olutla (Gomara), others as Tepeticpac (Florentine Codex), or maybe it was Huilotlan (Alva Ixtlilxochitl).

Her actual name is believed to be Malintzin and she seems to be from a town near the coast south of San Juan de Ulua. Most of the tales about her indicate she was at least a noble, if not a full on princess, in a high ranking family in a small town near Cotaxtla. Some accounts say she was sold by her family to support their sagging stake in society. Other tales say she was kidnapped in a raid. By some means she was separated from her family and her town and ended up in a market where she was acquired by the Maya as a slave.

The facts we do have about her are mostly post-contact. The defeated Maya gave her to Cortes after his victory in the Battle of Cintla. As part of the tribute, Malintzin, along with 19 other girls and women, was handed over to the Spaniards. The conquistador Bernal Diaz remembers her as a handsome woman in his account, possessed of grace. It seems she was granted to one of Cortes’s captains as a bride.

An artist’s depiction of the meeting of Hernan Cortes and La Malinche with the Aztec emperor Montezuma II.

But hidden from Cortes was a skill she possessed that would soon reveal itself and become a key to Cortes’s success in Mexico. The expedition left Maya country and arrived in San Juan de Ulua. Cortes and the Spanish first encountered the locals on a beach. These locals spoke the Aztec language of Nahua. Cortes had a Maya translator in his shipwrecked comrade Aguilar, who spent eight years as a captive in the Yucatan. Cortes heard of him and sent a letter, which Aguilar got wind of. The Maya captive made his way to Cozumel and joined Cortes. In the early expedition Aguilar was indispensable translating with Maya nobles and captains in Tabasco. But in Aztec lands he wasn’t as handy.

At some point on that beach Malintzin was noticed, or allowed herself to be noticed, speaking Nahua. She was bilingual, and with Aguilar helped to open communication between Cortes and the Aztecs. When Cortes spoke Aguilar would translate to Maya, and Malintzin would then translate the Maya into Nahua.

As the expedition moved inland, Malintzin learned Spanish, too. Soon she was the only translator needed, and often found herself at the table with power. Every negotiation, every speech about King Charles of Castile, or Mary the Mother of God, every demand for food and treasure, went through Malintzin. It’s hard to imagine that she did not insert her own twists into the language of politics that may have shaped her fortune.

La Malinche from the Canal Once film Malinche. — La Malinche from the Canal Once film *Malinche*.

When Cortes and his band of Spanish, Tlaxcala and Totonac warriors, entered Tenochtitlan, Malintzin was at the head of the procession with Cortes. She greeted Moctezuma on behalf of Cortes. This young woman from the coast was now negotiating with the most powerful men in the Empire.

As with most of the women in these tales, Malintzin was involved in relationships with several of the Conquistadors, including Cortes himself. She eventually gave birth to a son named Martin Cortes.

Malintzin was one of the first women in Mexico to be baptized. Shortly after she came into the possession of Cortes she was baptized and given the name Marina. She spent her life from then on, largely at his side, accompanying him to Honduras after the the Fall of Tenochtitlan. According to Diaz, her mother and half-brother were later baptized as Marta and Lazaro.

She is thought to have died around the age of 28, possibly in 1528 or early 1529, just a few years after the fall of Tenochtitlan. Her son, Martin, came to be known as “El Mestizo” and was symbolic of the union between Spain and the Aztec people. This Mestizo concept of shared indigenous and Spanish heritage would later come to be a defining concept for some modern Mexicans.

The legacy of La Malinche in modern Mexico is complicated. She is seen variously as a brave woman who acted with grace and intelligence. On the other hand she is also seen as a betrayer of the Indigenous people, serving the Conqueror Hernan Cortes. As with most powerful and controversial women she is often portrayed as a seductress, a harlot. As if her power came from her sexuality and not her bilingual ability and desire to seize the day.

My opinion is she was an opportunist caught in a very powerful situation and fate delivered her to the cruel, but victorious side. She did what she had to do to thrive. I’m sure she was intelligent, savvy and possibly superficially beautiful. In another sense she seems calculating and cruel but her situation probably demanded such traits. Like all good legends there is just enough to give her form, but enough vapor for the imagination to conjure what it wants.

Who are the Nahua, Aztec, Mexica?

Nahua, Aztec, Mexica

As I’ve delved into “Aztec” culture I’ve learned of the many nuances of how the world refers to these people from the Valley of Mexico. Understanding who the Aztecs were takes an understanding of the politics of the Valley. Most Americans think of the Aztecs as Montezuma’s native people that were conquered by Cortes. That concept fits in as a hyper-simplistic footnote to the overall genocide of Indigenous people across North America, a “here’s how THEY did it” anecdote of complicity.

Lost in that simplified narrative is the cultural nuance of Aztec identity and the survival of a “mestizo” culture. Let’s delve in. A familiar European comparison might be the early British Empire, at least for identity structure. Ireland, Scotland and England share the English language. Politically, they are the United Kingdom, three kingdoms united. But if you call an Irishman English he would be quite offended. The people grouped together as Aztecs were also culturally distinct.

Who were the Aztecs?

In the Valley of Mexico most people spoke the Nahuatl language. The cities of Tacuba, Texcoco and Tenochtitlan formed the Triple Alliance, a political entity that dominated Central Mexico. The people of this political alliance are what is most commonly thought of as “Aztec” – the Empire they controlled was shared among the three cities. To ascribe all of Aztec power, accomplishment and cultural richness to Moctezuma’s people is like saying everyone in Ireland, Wales and Scotland is basically English. The word “Aztec” was coined by German scientist Alexander von Humboldt, from the origin story of the Mexica people, who migrated out of the ancestral land of “Aztlan.” Complicated, I know. And as much as it irks some people to use it, Aztec is a convenient to word to describe a large swath of people that were affiliated politically and genetically.

What is Nahuatl?

Nahuatl is a language spoken by the indigenous Nahua people in Mexico and Central America. Nahua people include a diverse range of groups including Texcocans, Cholulans, Tlaxcalans, Mexica and possibly historic people like the Toltecs. Nahuatl is still widely spoken in Mexico, the United States, Guatemala, El Salvador and Belize. Interestingly Nahua is part of the Uto-Aztecan language group which includes Comanche, Shoshoni and Ute, whose name survives as Utah. It’s believed a split in the distant past occurred with the Nahua people migrating south, breaking off from the Northern group.

But what is “Mexica?”

Mexica refers to a specific group of Nahua-speaking people that migrated into the Valley of Mexico in the late 1200s, eventually settling on an island where they founded their capital city of Tenochtitlan. The Mexica had a single leader and were a distinct group from others in the area like the people of Culhuacan or the Chalcas, or like the English and their king were separate from Scotland and their king. In the world of the Triple Alliance, the Mexica city of Tenochtitlan was one of three independent cities in the Alliance, with Tacuba and Texcoco. There was an adjacent island city near Tenochtitlan called Tlatelolco, which is also Mexica. A civil war among the Mexica led to a split and Tlatelolco was established. Eventually Tenochtitlan subjugated their Mexica opponents, effectively uniting the Mexica people again, despite a unique Tlatelolca-Mexica identity.

Painting of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco by Tomas Filsinger.

Was Moctezuma Nahua, Aztec or Mexica?

I would argue Moctezuma was Aztec. WHAT!? I know, that sounds weird, but genetically he probably was not much more Mexica than he was of Culhuacan, Texcoco or any other place on the lake. He was definitely Nahua. Like how European royals mingle their blood and not necessarily from the places they ruled, it was the same with Nahua cities.

I might be out of my depth here, but the ruling class by the time of Moctezuma’s reign were essentially a royal caste that married among the nobility of other cities. The kingdoms switched hands among an interchangeable lineup of royal stock. When the Mexica established Tenochtitlan around 1330, the Tlatoani at that time was probably largely of Mexica blood. By the time Moctezuma was born his DNA had been mingled with royal lineages from Culhuacan and other nearby cities. His brother Cuitlahuac was ruler of the lakeside town of Ixtapalapa, and he would become Tlatoani of the Mexica after Moctezuma’s death. In contrast, the commoners of those towns probably did largely represent a distinct cultural and genetic group, separate from the royal caste. That’s how I see it at least.

And “Mexico?”

In the Aztec era Mexico could refer to any number of things, depending who was speaking and what their knowledge was. It could refer to the merged island cities of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. One could specify they lived in Mexico-Tenochtitlan. But perhaps were of Tlatelolca-Mexica heritage. It could refer generally to the Valley of Mexico. Today Mexico refers to the modern nation with its politics and culture emanating from the former Mexica capital now called Mexico City. It’s important to remember that the Aztecs were just one of many groups that lived in mesoamerica. Millions of Mexicans still speak Maya. Some also speak Tarahumara, Purupecha and others.

What is “mesoamerica,” then, genius?

Mesoamerica refers to a time and place in Mexican/Central American history. Extending from Central Mexico down through Belize, Guatemala and El Salvador and covering a broad range of time from the independent foundation of culture in Mexico through the tail end of the Conquest. It includes historic cultures and places like the Olmec and Teotihuacan, and contemporary cultures, as well as customs, agricultural products, languages and anything else shaped by the people of that time.

Hopefully now when you meet a Nahuatl-speaking Tlatelolca-Mexica from Mexico City, Mexico you’ll know .